Immutable Kingdom – Part 16

The Immutable Kingdom – Part 16

By Scott A. Klaft

The First of the Crusades

In A.D. 1095, the Pope of Rome, Urban, finally responded to the Emperor’s call to assist him in driving the Turks from Palestine. Urban urged the people of France to lead Western Europe in the first of these efforts that came to be called the Crusades.

There were many motives for the people to respond favorably to this call to arms, some of which may be determined from cultural history. In Western Europe, a famine had caused a tremendous economic recession; and, many people, hoping to be reestablished financially, were eager to enlist in the crusading army. The Normans, always interested in plunder, were seeking to establish themselves as the territorial lords over the lands that they intended to take from the Muslims. The entrepreneurial Venetians wanted to develop easier trade with the near East. Love of military adventure, or even the hope of escape from the boredom of domestic life, have never been unusual motives for some soldiers of fortune. Still others only joined in an attempt to escape the punishment for crimes they had committed. The main appeal, however, was that Urban presented the crusade as a Holy War, the objective of which would be liberating the Holy places of Jesus’ earthly existence from the infidelic Turks. Pope Urban actually conducted the effort himself, declaring that anyone who lost their lives in this Holy War would immediately have their sins absolved.

Clearly, Urban had his own motives for the crusade. The public appeal was that a pilgrimage to Jerusalem should be made safe, and that ‘brotherly contact’ with the “Christians” in the East must be established. It has been suggested, however, that Urban was actually more interested in establishing a puppet-lord in Palestine under his own authority and control. No matter what the particulars were, it is doubtless that he was interested in increasing the power and prestige of the papal office.

The cooperation between the Byzantine Emperor and the Catholic Pope turned out to be mutually beneficial. Emperor Alexius was able to recruit soldiers to fight his enemies by means of the Pope, and the Pope removed an excommunication order that had been placed on a previous Emperor, which in turn reopened the Latin churches in Constantinople. The long contested division between the two great powers was no more, and a unification of the people finally seemed a viable possibility.

In preparation for the coming campaign, Urban made a speech to the Council of Clermont, resulting in a crazed enthusiasm that sent tens of thousands of poorly armed peasants into Palestine without regulation or restraint, wholly convinced that it was God’s will. When they met the Turks in Asia Minor, they were either slaughtered or taken prisoner, and sold as slaves.

The noblemen of France, Belgium, and Northern Italy along with their more orderly armies had some success in taking the city of Nicaea, and they headed toward Antioch. It was around the years A.D. 1097 and 1098, when, as the crusader’s morale was nearly crushed by the sight of the Turkish reinforcements in Antioch, someone claimed to have found the very spear used by the Roman soldier who pierced the side of Christ. This so bolstered the troops that they threw themselves at the enemy with such ferocity that, even with reinforcements, the Turks had to yield. Five thousand of the original fifty were all that remained, but they abruptly marched toward Jerusalem, captured the city, and celebrated the completion of their task.

The man given the throne in Jerusalem, Baldwin of Bouillon was heralded with the fierce title, “Defender of the Holy Sepulcher,” but the kingdom itself was very weak. The conquerors held the territory for a time, but it was not due to their military might, but rather due to a division among the Muslims. When the Muslims united to some degree in A.D. 1144, however, and retook the city of Edessa, the “writing on the wall” spoke of another crusade brewing in the near future.

(Continued Next Week)

Immutable Kingdom – Part 15

The Immutable Kingdom – Part 15

By Scott A. Klaft

Pre-Crusade period (Empowering the Pope)

In A.D. 300, Constantine left Rome to escape the pressures of the northern barbaric tribes, and he established his seat of power in Constantinople. Eventually, the hoards would sweep into Western Europe, signaling the collapse of the Roman Empire as a controlling power in A.D. 476. From that time, Western Europe was divided into several various kingdoms. They each accepted some form of Christianity, but they did not let that prevent them from plundering and burning Rome, or stabling their horses in church buildings. Political turmoil, lawlessness, and general chaos brought a longing among the people for unification with a centralized authority. The “Bishop” of Rome established his own power-base and began to provide the means and encouragement for those whom he desired to be Emperor.

In the early 700’s, the Muslims invaded Western Europe, necessitating the unification of the forces of the “Christianized” kingdoms to stop them. With the aid of the now fully established Pope, the peoples consolidated political power under Charles Martel (A.D. 714-741) and repelled the Muslims. Duly frightened by Islamic aggression, he and his son Pepin willingly increased the political unifying power of the Pope, giving him a territory over which he would have earthly rule. From this, he had a foundation for church/state control for the first time. The greatly honored Charlemagne re-unified the kingdom after a brief division resulting from the death of Pepin. Charlemagne was crowned before the people by Pope Leo III in A.D. 800, which resulted in his thinking himself to be king on the level of David in the scriptures.

Taking an active role in the leadership of the church without regard of the Pope as superior, Charlemagne appointed everything from Archbishops to Perish Priests. After his death and a period of brief chaos, Otto the Great, (reportedly his son, but more likely, his grandson) re-unified the “Holy Roman Empire” in A.D. 962. Otto persisted to appoint the Bishops; and, the conflicts between successive Emperors and Popes continued for centuries.

With such a contest of power, it is not surprising that wicked forces would begin to assert an influence. There were several manipulations of historical documents, professing to prove Papal supremacy. Many forgeries in the name of a reputed scholar and Archbishop from the past were presented as evidence to establish Papal rule. This ruse was repeatedly and adamantly insisted until complete ecclesiastical authority had become incontestable.

The Popes had two major weapons in their arsenal by which control was exerted. (1.) By excommunication, the priests could control the general populace by threatening not only the removal of divine grace and church association, but also becoming a social outcast, removing all privileges of citizenship. (2.) By interdict, the Pope wielded leverage over the secular rulers. If a ruler displeased the Pope, orders were given to the Perish Priests to refuse to perform their duties of serving mass, perform marriages, or bury the dead until repentance was made. Pressures from the people forced a ruler’s acquiescence. For the next several hundred years, the Pope’s influence (and unification of the churches) saw marked increase with each consecutive Pope with very few setbacks.

The twelfth and thirteenth centuries are typified by the mass migration of people in Western Europe into eastern lands with the hope of recovering the lands of Jesus’ ministry. These are known as the Crusades. In the seventh century, the Mohammedan Arabs had taken over Palestine, and it was very difficult for those trying to perform the sacrament of “penance” by making a pilgrimage to the “Holy Lands.” When the Seljuk Turks captured the land in A.D. 1073, safe passage was near impossible. In A.D. 1092, Emperor Alexius saw an opportunity due to the Turkish civil war, and he sought out the assistance of the Pope to drive the Turks from the “Holy lands.” The Pope considered it for three years before giving an answer.

(To be continued next week)

Immutable Kingdom – Part 14

The Immutable Kingdom – Part 14

By Scott A. Klaft

The Rise of Mohammedanism

Mohammed, the founder of the Moslem religion, was born in April A.D. 570 in the city of Mecca, Arabia. His father died two months before his birth and his mother when he was six. His grandfather took care of him until he also died only two years later. Mohammed’s uncle, a merchant, took great interest in Mohammed, taking him on caravans, teaching him the trade. At the age of twenty-five, Mohammed became the chief merchant and camel driver for a rich widow, whom Mohammed would eventually marry.

After his marriage, Mohammed spent a great deal of time in a cave near Mecca where he claimed to receive visions from God by the angel Gabriel. Within these “visions” were the doctrines and precepts that Heaven had been designed for his countrymen. At the age of thirty-eight, Mohammed returned to the cave for two complete years, and upon his return assumed the title, “Apostle of God,” his only converts being his wife, a freed slave, and his nephew, Ali. It was four years before Mohammed described his experiences in the cave, receiving the words of the Qu’ran (Koran: meaning “thing read”).

Due to his opposition to idolatry, the city of Mecca tried to kill Mohammed, but his uncle protected him. In the first year, he won eight converts; and in the third year, he outlined a plan to overthrow the 360 idols of Mecca. This produced such opposition that he was compelled to flee to the city of Medina with eighty men and seven women under his command.

Eloquent preaching converted most of that city, except the Jews, and he became the dictator of the city. Those who refused to become Moslem were immediately killed, and it was here that Mohammed declared that anyone who died fighting the “heathen” would have a place in paradise. This gave the men tremendous courage, for the gate to heaven was at the point of the sword.

In A.D. 630, he set his mind on the capture of Mecca with ten thousand men. One of the leading men of the city was captured, declared the Moslem faith, and begged Mohammed to spare the city. The deal was struck on the condition that the city would also convert. Mecca was taken with only a little bloodshed.

The Qu’ran is made up of Mohammed’s speeches, statements, and prayers. Some were dictated; some were recorded from memory. After the death of Mohammed, these were gathered up and arranged according to length, with the longest passage first. There are many contradictions within them, but there is no way of telling the earlier teachings from the later. The compilation recognizes Adam, Abraham, Moses, John the Baptist, and Christ as prophets, but considers Mohammed as the last and greatest of them all.

There are five main obligations for each Muslim. (1) Recite the creed: “There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is His prophet”; (2) Pray five times a day facing Mecca; (3) Eat no food from sun-up to sundown during the month of Ramadan; (4) Give alms to the poor; (5) If at all possible, make a pilgrimage to Mecca during one’s lifetime.

Friday is the day of Muslim public worship. There are strict moral codes disallowing the use of intoxicating drink and gambling. Pork cannot be eaten. Wives are treated as property, and men were allowed to have “only” four at a time (there was no restrictions on making changes within the four, however).

After gaining momentum, the movement became economic and political more than religious. The “heathen” were no longer put to death, but they were the only ones who had to pay taxes. In less than 25 years, Mohammed had taken Egypt, Palestine, Persia, and Syria; and, another 150 years brought North Africa and Spain under Muslim control.